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Why Changing Your Garden And Enjoying Outdooor Living Is Great

Outdoor living, urban living, changing your garden,

Out Door Living Advice

This applies equally to country or city living. While for some the garden is a passion, for many more people it is an “outdoor living room”. It’s a place where children play, families eat, friends are entertained and all types of hobbies are pursued. To have the best outdoor living area, you must first consider your lifestyle, and what you want to do in the garden.

Make Your Garden More Liveable!

For people with larger properties, such as farms or large suburban blocks, try to keep your living, play and entertainment areas away from work and storage areas.
Keep rubbish and compost areas away from bbq and eating areas. (Note: Flies breed in rubbish and compost).
Keep still water away from outdoor entertainment areas (these can be mozzie breeding areas).
Plant mints and tansy near outdoor living areas to help repel insects.
When you build anything with bolts or nails, make sure no bolts or nails are left protruding.
Put metal furniture (or play equipment) in shaded places where it won’t get too hot and scald the children.
In hot climates, check out where cooling winds come from (usually off the water in seaside areas), and leave openings in the garden to catch these winds (ie. Don’t build walls or plant hedges where they will stop a cool breeze).
In cool climates paved areas against a north facing wall will heat up more than other parts of the garden, providing a useable outdoor living area almost all year round.

For A Comfortable Time in the Garden

Provide shaded places so you can escape the sun.
Always wear a hat
In summer and in warmer climates, always apply suntan lotion.
Keep out of the sun in the middle of the day.
Keep your garden clean so you don’t attract pests
Never chance falling asleep in the full sun.
Break some mint or tansy and rub over yourself if insects pose a problem. (Tansy repels flies, most mints repel most insects).
Throw some crushed leaves of mint or tansy around the bbq, or on the table with food to help keep insects away.
Avoid using poisonous plants.
Avoid creating slippery surfaces (eg. extra wet areas or an overused extra wet area in a lawn)
Remove sharp or protruding objects which could be bumped, tripped on or knocked (eg. part of a fence, poorly laid paving, tools left lying around, farm equipment)
Avoid areas which will restrict the cool flow of air.

Buy Outdoor Living products, log cabins and garden sheds at Garden Eco

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Garden Buildings

Garden buildings are used for various reasons, including:

Somewhere to escape the heat or rain.
Somewhere to store bikes, tools or other things either for protection, or just to keep out of eyesight.
Somewhere to work in away from the house.
Somewhere for privacy away from the house (some parents use gazebos or shed to escape the kids, and some kids use them to escape the parents).

Garden Sheds
The least expensive type of shed is a prefabricated metal structure with galvanized iron walls and roof. Despite being galvanized, the walls can eventually rust, hence routine maintenance (rust proofing and painting) becomes essential if you want a longer life. Being a cheap construction these have their problems. These sheds are poorly insulated and may not be watertight. Unless anchored tightly to the ground they can blow down in a windstorm or cyclone. These problems can be reduced by bolting the shed to a pre poured, concrete slab which is raised above ground level. A window and double doors can provide useful ventilation on very hot days. Brick or timber sheds are better insulated, and if properly constructed will last longer than a tin shed; however these are more expensive alternatives.

Gazebos
Gazebos are roofed buildings designed to command a view. Open on one or more sides, they may be any shape, though traditionally they are octagonal or hexagonal with a hipped or conical roof.
They may be constructed of wood, cast iron, aluminium or cast columns of cement, with wooden shingles or palings being traditional for the roof, although corrugated or flat iron can be used.
A gazebo can provide protection from the direct sun for outdoor entertaining. There are all types of gazebos on the market today, and your choice is best determined by what you can afford and the style of garden you are trying to create. Remember though, that there may be maintenance involved. Stained timber will need restaining. Painted metal or timber will need repainting periodically.

BARBEQUES

Barbeques come in all shapes and forms, and are just about a must have item in any Australian backyard, even very small ones. No matter what sort of barbecue you have, there are some basic rules to follow in where you put it and how you use it.

Location and Landscaping around the BBQ

Keep it clear of plants which could catch on fire. (Fire resistant plants include Agapanthus, Coprosma, Ficus, Ligustrum, Pelargonium, Populus (Poplar) and most cacti or succulents).
Build a wall or fence (preferably fire resistant), nearby to protect the barbecue from wind.
Locate a table, seat or bench near the barbecue to place uncooked (or cooked) food on.
Outdoor tables and chairs should be far enough away to avoid any problem with smoke, or spitting fats or cooking oils.
Install lighting so that you can see how the cooking is going at night. Be sure that people standing around the barbecue don’t throw shadows over the barbecue.
Put plants which can be used in cooking near the barbecue (eg. Thyme, Sage, Oregano).
Gravel is the best surface under a barbecue, because it won’t develop ugly permanent stains from oils and fats, etc. Concrete and sandstone are some of the worst materials for staining.

Types of BBQ’s

Wood barbeques are appropriate if you live in a treed area, where there is an abundance of firewood, such as in country areas, or you have access to wood offcuts (perhaps from a joinery). They are normally built from concrete blocks, brick or stone. Always remember the fire needs air around it to burn. The best wood barbeques are ones where the fire is on a metal grill raised above the base, allowing air to move in below the fire, and ash to drop through. The hot plate above the fire should slope slightly backwards to allow fat to drain off to the rear. If it drains to the front, it is dangerous and can stain paving, shoes or anything else in front of the bbq. If built properly, with a tall chimney, it is relatively smoke free. Another simple way to build a wood barbecue is to dig a pit in the ground, sit a metal grill in the pit and place a metal plate on top of a few bricks to bridge the hole.
Outdoor Ovens. The “Webber” style barbecue has become very popular in recent years. Using heat beads as the fuel and fire lighters to start it up is not exactly cheap, but it is very easy to use and particularly appreciated when you want to cook a roast on a hot Christmas day. The main disadvantages are that you must remember to buy the heat beads and firelighters, and you must be positive that there is sufficient heat being generated before putting the top on. Most people who own this type of barbecue have experienced the occasional late or cold meal, because “someone didn’t get the heat beads going hot enough”.
Gas Barbeques. Gas is clean and reliable. It isn’t expensive to buy or use, and is instant heat, unlike heat beads or wood fire. The only real problem arises when you don’t check the gas level and run out of gas half way through a barbecue.

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Entertaining In The Garden

Copyright (c) 2010 Filton Kingswood

Your outdoor space, It’s a place where children play, families eat, friends are entertained. Whether it’s a balcony or a traditional English garden we love to entertain and enjoy our garden space. To have the best outdoor living area, you must first consider your lifestyle, and what you want to do in the garden. It may just be a make over, it may be a complete re-design. Every plan is different but the items you buy to make the changes are key.

This applies equally to country or city living. While for some the garden is a passion, for many more people it is an “outdoor living room”. It’s a place where children play, families eat, friends are entertained and all types of hobbies are pursued. To have the best outdoor living area, you must first consider your lifestyle, and what you want to do in the garden.

Make Your Garden More Liveable!

For people with larger properties, such as farms or large suburban blocks, try to keep your living, play and entertainment areas away from work and storage areas. Keep rubbish and compost areas away from bbq and eating areas. (Note: Flies breed in rubbish and compost). Keep still water away from outdoor entertainment areas (these can be mozzie breeding areas). Plant mints and tansy near outdoor living areas to help repel insects. When you build anything with bolts or nails, make sure no bolts or nails are left protruding. Put metal furniture (or play equipment) in shaded places where it won’t get too hot and scald the children. In hot climates, check out where cooling winds come from (usually off the water in seaside areas), and leave openings in the garden to catch these winds (ie. Don’t build walls or plant hedges where they will stop a cool breeze). In cool climates paved areas against a north facing wall will heat up more than other parts of the garden, providing a useable outdoor living area almost all year round.

Making the Garden Comfortable

Provide shaded places so you can escape the sun. Always wear a hat In summer and in warmer climates, always apply suntan lotion. Keep out of the sun in the middle of the day. Keep your garden clean so you don’t attract pests Never chance falling asleep in the full sun. Break some mint or tansy and rub over yourself if insects pose a problem. (Tansy repels flies, most mints repel most insects). Throw some crushed leaves of mint or tansy around the bbq, or on the table with food to help keep insects away. Avoid using poisonous plants. Avoid creating slippery surfaces (eg. extra wet areas or an overused extra wet area in a lawn) Remove sharp or protruding objects which could be bumped, tripped on or knocked (eg. part of a fence, poorly laid paving, tools left lying around, farm equipment) Avoid areas which will restrict the cool flow of air.

Outdoor Living products are available online and usually delivered free to your door Garden Buildings and Structures

Garden buildings are used for various reasons, including: Somewhere to escape the heat or rain. Somewhere to store bikes, tools or other things either for protection, or just to keep out of eyesight. Somewhere to work in away from the house. Somewhere for privacy away from the house (some parents use gazebos or shed to escape the kids, and some kids use them to escape the parents).

Wooden Sheds

The least expensive type of shed is a prefabricated metal structure with galvanized iron walls and roof. Despite being galvanized, the walls can eventually rust, hence routine maintenance (rust proofing and painting) becomes essential if you want a longer life. Being a cheap construction these have their problems. These sheds are poorly insulated and may not be watertight. Unless anchored tightly to the ground they can blow down in a windstorm or cyclone. These problems can be reduced by bolting the shed to a pre poured, concrete slab which is raised above ground level. A window and double doors can provide useful ventilation on very hot days. Brick or timber sheds are better insulated, and if properly constructed will last longer than a tin shed; however these are more expensive alternatives.

Gazebos

Gazebos are roofed buildings designed to command a view. Open on one or more sides, they may be any shape, though traditionally they are octagonal or hexagonal with a hipped or conical roof. They may be constructed of wood, cast iron, aluminium or cast columns of cement, with wooden shingles or palings being traditional for the roof, although corrugated or flat iron can be used.

A gazebo can provide protection from the direct sun for outdoor entertaining. There are all types of gazebos on the market today, and your choice is best determined by what you can afford and the style of garden you are trying to create. Remember though, that there may be maintenance involved. Stained timber will need re-staining. Painted metal or timber will need repainting periodically.

Outdoor Gas or Charcoal BBQ’s

Barbeques come in all shapes and forms, and are just about a must have item in any Australian backyard, even very small ones. No matter what sort of barbecue you have, there are some basic rules to follow in where you put it and how you use it.

The space aroudd the Barbecue

Keep it clear of plants which could catch on fire. (Fire resistant plants include Agapanthus, Coprosma, Ficus, Ligustrum, Pelargonium, Populus (Poplar) and most cacti or succulents). Build a wall or fence (preferably fire resistant), nearby to protect the barbecue from wind. Locate a table, seat or bench near the barbecue to place uncooked (or cooked) food on.

Outdoor tables and chairs should be far enough away to avoid any problem with smoke, or spitting fats or cooking oils. Install lighting so that you can see how the cooking is going at night. Be sure that people standing around the barbecue don’t throw shadows over the barbecue. Put plants which can be used in cooking near the barbecue (eg. Thyme, Sage, Oregano). Gravel is the best surface under a barbecue, because it won’t develop ugly permanent stains from oils and fats, etc. Concrete and sandstone are some of the worst materials for staining.

Types of BBQ’s

Wood barbeques are appropriate if you live in a tree’d area, where there is an abundance of firewood, such as in country areas, or you have access to wood offcuts (perhaps from a joinery). They are normally built from concrete blocks, brick or stone. Always remember the fire needs air around it to burn. The best wood barbeques are ones where the fire is on a metal grill raised above the base, allowing air to move in below the fire, and ash to drop through. The hot plate above the fire should slope slightly backwards to allow fat to drain off to the rear. If it drains to the front, it is dangerous and can stain paving, shoes or anything else in front of the bbq. If built properly, with a tall chimney, it is relatively smoke free. Another simple way to build a wood barbecue is to dig a pit in the ground, sit a metal grill in the pit and place a metal plate on top of a few bricks to bridge the hole.

Outdoor Ovens

The “Webber” style barbecue has become very popular in recent years. Using heat beads as the fuel and fire lighters to start it up is not exactly cheap, but it is very easy to use and particularly appreciated when you want to cook a roast on a hot Christmas day. The main disadvantages are that you must remember to buy the heat beads and firelighters, and you must be positive that there is sufficient heat being generated before putting the top on. Most people who own this type of barbecue have experienced the occasional late or cold meal, because “someone didn’t get the heat beads going hot enough”.

Gas Barbeques

Gas is clean and reliable. It isn’t expensive to buy or use, and is instant heat, unlike heat beads or wood fire. The only real problem arises when you don’t check the gas level and run out of gas half way through a barbecue.

Outdoor heating

A traditional fire pit has been used for centuries. It is a hole dug into the ground which is used to contain a fire. Although very practical for generating heat and disposing of garden waste, they aren’t the safest or most attractive way of heating your garden. In recent years the traditional fire pit has been replaced with more convenient and attractive garden heaters. The more modern fire pits are primarily made of metal and are either log burning or gas burning. They generally have a fully contained base unit so contain the fire in a similar way to the traditional ‘pit’, but their main advantage over the traditional fire pit is that they are portable so can not only be used in different places around the garden but can also be taken to the beach or on a camping trip.

Whatever your Garden, large, small or evening a terrace you can make the most of your space. Its great therapy and you can look at it every day for free. It can be low cost and the changes last forever. Love your outdoor space

The Best Drill Press For Your Workshop

A drill press is used mainly for drilling spaced holes or tunnels with exact depths. This is a versatile tool that every technician should have.

A drill press can drill holes onto an exact depth. This tool works with pulleys and belts. A motor drives the pulley and belts to spin the quill and chuck. The chuck holds the bit. When the lever is pulled down, the bit will drop onto the wood.

A drill press has two main types: the bench top and the floor model. It comes with motors of ¼ to 1 horsepower with a 5 to 12 speed setting. Mortise-machine-like function is achieved when a spindle sander and pocket hole machine are attached.

Four of the best drill presses that became the best sellers of all time include the: 1. Delta 14-651 Professional Bench Top Mortising Machine (9-9)
2. Craftsman Professional 17 in. Drill Press (9)
3. Jet JBM-5 / 708580 Benchtop Mortiser (9) and
4. the Cummins Industrial Tools 5 Speed – Bench Top Drill Press (.99-.99).

Delta 14-651 Professional Bench Mortising Machine
Delta 14-651 1/2-HP Bench Mortising Machine became one of the most honored brands in woodworking tools that offers more precision at ½ horsepower motor. It has a cast iron base (16-3/4-by-13-1/2-inch) and a gas-filled head stabilizer.

Other features include:
• Multi-position hand lever
• A rack-and-pinion system that raises and lowers the head.
• Head column that swings 180 degrees
• Single phase induction motor
• Easy open access to drill chuck
• Adjustable dovetail
• Magnetic starter
• Easy bit and chisel changing
• 3/8 inches capacity chuck and key
• Weight: 77 pounds
• Diameter: 3-3/4 in. (95 mm)
• 2-year warranty

The set includes 1/4, 3/8, 5/16 and 1/2-inch chisels and bit sets; along with a tool and chisel tray, a gas-filled head stabilizer and multi position feed lever.

Craftsman Professional 22901 Drill Press
The Craftsman Professional 22901 is a 17-inch drill press that includes a single-arm quill handle. This enables easy presetting and repetitive drilling operation. It has a state-of-the-art column mounted on laser attachment that delivers pinpoint accuracy.

Other features include:
• Drill bit replacement.
• Battery powered
• 4-7/8 inches of quill stroke capacity power
• 16 spindle
• 3/4 hp 115/230-volt motor
• large cast iron table for expandable work support
• column-mounted laser
• adjustable work lamp
• Push button industrial style switch
• Tool tray and extension table

Jet 708580 JBM-5 1/2 Horsepower Bench Mortiser
The Jet 708580 is an affordable benchtop mortiser which was designed to take up to ½ in. chisel bits. It runs with a ½ horsepower induction motor. This tool weighs 44 pounds, is easily maneuvered and reverses on its base, allowing a long stock mortising. Bits are easily changeable by flipping the steel to open the door on each side. The Jet 708580 allows a carpenter to create good looking tennon joints.

Product Details:
• Made with cast-iron and steel
• 4 3/4-inch head stroke, 1/2-inch chisel capacity
• Quick-setting depth stop
• Four predrilled mounting holes
• Removable safety toggle switch
• Long and multi-position splines
• Includes a mortiser, three bits, chuck key
• 2-year limited warranty

Cummins Industrial Tools 5 Speed – Bench Top Drill Press
The Cummins 5 Speed is important to have in every workshop. It has 5 quick-change speed settings. The tool has a long quill for mortising. Its drilling depth is adjustable, stopping the quill positively. Cummins bench top drill presses have an adjustable table that tilts left and right, for an angled drilling operation.

Technical Details:
• ½ in. drill chuck
• Press height: 22 ½ inches
• Quill travel – 50 millimeter
• Sturdy 11 in. x 7 in. base
• 1/2 Horsepower
• Power: 60 Hz ,120 V, 2.4 amperes
• Table size 6 3/8 in. x 6 3/8 in.
• No load speed 760-3070 rpm
• 3 prong plug
• UL listed

Other known brands of drill presses include the following:
• Wilton
• Fisch Precision Tools
• Tradesman
• Dremel
• Milwaukee
• Grizzly, etc

Featured above the top-selling modern drilling tools. Consider the versatiliy of the tool you are looking to buy.

Recorded on June 9, 2010 using a Flip Video camcorder.
Video Rating: 0 / 5

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Safes: 3 Major Historical Developments

If you have ever seen a Robin Hood movie (animated or not), you may have noticed that when Robin robbed from the Sheriff of Nottingham, the gold was often kept in a wood box that was bound with iron straps. These were called strong boxes, and are the precursor to modern day safes. It seems rather obvious that a wood box has limited security potential, and offers almost no protection against fire, but it wasn’t until the late 1700′s that we started seeing serious efforts in what would become modern day safes. Let’s take a look at three of the these developments.

The first, and probably most obvious upgrade was in the late 1700′s. Though cast iron strong boxes may have been around on a limited basis, in the 1780′s they became more widespread as iron became less expensive. They were commonly seen in the homes of the wealthy upper class in England. The term safes was not yet in use, so at this point they were called iron chests. These chests were about 1/2″ to 1″ thick and were cast in one piece. Doors were cast also from one piece and of similar thickness to the body.

But iron chests and the old strong boxes were specifically designed against theft, not for fire protection. It wasn’t until the 1800′s that manufacturers started to make safes to protect against heat and fire. It is in the quest to protect against fire that we see the second major development in safes.

One of the first fire resistant patents was filed by Richard Scott in 1801, but there is no evidence that he used it. Others were also working on fire resistant security boxes, with the idea to have multiple layers of metal with slow conducting materials between layers.

It was Thomas Milner, a tinsmith from England who developed in the 1820′s a safe that was composed of two thin sheets of strong tin plate, with a layer of sawdust mixed with alum sandwiched between the tin. When the safe was exposed to fire, the alum melted which resulted in the sawdust being dampened. The wet sawdust stopped the conduction of heat to the inside of the safe. Though fire resistant, it was not very secure against burglary.

Over the next decade, the wood based insulating material evolved several times until in the 1840′s when Daniel Fitzgerald discovered how to use a liquid form of plaster of Paris for insulation between heavy iron plates. This was called the “Salamander Safe” (after the amphibian that in folklore is said to be able to survive a fire). The only problem that was discovered was that items inside the safe became damp. With a few small changes in the composition of the plaster, the problem was solved. This innovation is credited with a lot of success in protecting valuables during fires in the nineteenth century.

The third major development of safes came with an improvement in burglary protection during the 1840′s (around the time that the term “safe” came into use). During this decade, and from a few different sources, we saw the development of diagonal bolt systems for locks, the use of strong plate iron, and drill protection used around the locks of safes. All of these made safes harder to break into, which became big public sport among safe manufacturers of this time period.

Safes have definitely come a long way from the original wood strong box. These three major break through in its development are the building blocks to the modern safe, in which we still see innovation and improvements today.

Channel Tunnel

Origins

Proposals and attempts

Key dates

1802

Albert Mathieu put forward a cross-Channel tunnel proposal.

1875

The Channel Tunnel Company Ltd began preliminary trials

1882

The Abbot’s Cliff heading had reached 897 yards (820 m) and that at Shakespeare Cliff was 2,040 yards (1,870 m) in length

January 1975

A UKrance government backed scheme that started in 1974 was cancelled

February 1986

The Treaty of Canterbury was signed allowing the project to proceed

June 1988

First tunnelling commenced in France

December 1988

UK TBM commenced operation

December 1990

The service tunnel broke through under the Channel

May 1994

The tunnel was formally opened by HM The Queen and President Mitterrand

Mid 1994

Freight and passenger trains commenced operation

November 1996

A fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel

November 2007

High Speed 1, linking London to the tunnel, opened

September 2008

Another fire in a lorry shuttle severely damaged the tunnel

December 2009

Eurostar trains stranded in the tunnel due to condensation affecting the trains’ electrical hardware

In 1802, French mining engineer Albert Mathieu put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with illumination from oil lamps, horse-drawn coaches, and an artificial island mid-Channel for changing horses.

In the 1830s, Frenchman Aim Thom de Gamond performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between Calais and Dover. Thom de Gamond explored several schemes and, in 1856, he presented a proposal to Napoleon III for a mined railway tunnel from Cap Gris-Nez to Eastwater Point with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank at a cost of 170 million francs, or less than GB7 million.

Thom de Gamond’s 1856 plan for a cross-Channel link, with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank mid-Channel

In 1865, a deputation led by George Ward Hunt proposed the idea of a tunnel to the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the day, William Ewart Gladstone.

After 1867, William Low and Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw promoted ideas, but none were implemented. An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel. In 1881, British railway entrepreneur Sir William Watkin and French Suez Canal contractor Alexandre Lavalley were in the Anglo-French Submarine Railway Company that conducted exploratory work on both sides of the Channel. On the English side a 2.13-metre (7 ft) diameter Beumont-English boring machine dug a 1,893-metre (6,211 ft) pilot tunnel from Shakespeare Cliff. On the French side, a similar machine dug 1,669 metres (5,476 ft) from Sangatte. The project was abandoned in May 1882, owing to British political and press campaigns advocating that a tunnel would compromise Britain’s national defences. These early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project.

In 1955, defence arguments were accepted to be irrelevant because of the dominance of air power; thus, both the British and French governments supported technical and geological surveys. Construction work commenced on both sides of the Channel in 1974, a government-funded project using twin tunnels on either side of a service tunnel, with capability for car shuttle wagons. In January 1975, to the dismay of the French partners, the British government cancelled the project. The government had changed to the Labour Party and there was uncertainty about EC membership, cost estimates had ballooned to 200% and the national economy was troubled. By this time the British Priestly TBM was ready and the Ministry of Transport was able to do a 300 m experimental drive. This short tunnel would however be reused as the starting and access point for tunnelling operations from the British side.

In 1979, the “Mouse-hole Project” was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain. The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel, but without shuttle terminals. The British government took no interest in funding the project, but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said she had no objection to a privately funded project. In 1981 British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and Franois Mitterrand agreed to set up a working group to look into a privately funded project, and in April 1985 promoters were formally invited to submit scheme proposals. Four submissions were shortlisted:

a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/Franceanche (CTG/F),

Eurobridge: a 4.5 km span suspension bridge with a roadway in an enclosed tube

Euroroute: a 21 km tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges, and

Channel Expressway: large diameter road tunnels with mid-channel ventilation towers.

The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name “Flexilink”. In 1975 there was no campaign protesting a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state-owned. Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987. Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but ventilation issues, concerns about accident management, and fear of driver mesmerisation led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project.

Arrangement

A block diagram describing the organisation structure used on the project. Eurotunnel is the central organisation for construction and operation (via a concession) of the tunnel

The British Channel Tunnel Group consisted of two banks and five construction companies, while their French counterparts, Franceanche, consisted of three banks and five construction companies. The role of the banks was to advise on financing and secure loan commitments. On 2 July 1985, the groups formed Channel Tunnel Group/Franceanche (CTG/F). Their submission to the British and French governments was drawn from the 1975 project, including 11 volumes and a substantial environmental impact statement.

The design and construction was done by the ten construction companies in the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and boring from Sangatte was undertaken by the five French construction companies in the joint venture group GIE Transmanche Construction. The English Terminal and boring from Shakespeare Cliff was undertaken by the five British construction companies in the Trankslink Joint Venture. The two partnerships were linked by TransManche Link (TML), a bi- national project organisation. The Matre d’Oeuvre was a supervisory engineering body employed by Eurotunnel under the terms of the concession that monitored project activity and reported back to the governments and banks.

In France, with its long tradition of infrastructure investment, the project garnered widespread approval and in April 1987 the French National Assembly gave unanimous support and, in June 1987, after a public inquiry, the Senate gave unanimous support. In Britain, select committees examined the proposal, making history by holding hearings outside of Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the third reading of the Channel Tunnel Bill took place in the House of Commons, and was carried by 94 votes to 22. The Channel Tunnel Act gained Royal assent and passed into English law in July of that year.

The Channel Tunnel is a build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) project with a concession. TML would design and build the tunnel, but financing was through a separate legal entity: Eurotunnel. Eurotunnel absorbed CTG/F-M and signed a construction contract with TML; however, the British and French governments controlled final engineering and safety decisions. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55- (later 65-) year operating concession to repay loans and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between Eurotunnel, British Rail and the Socit Nationale des Chemins de fer Franais guaranteeing future revenue in exchange for the railways obtaining half of the tunnel’s capacity.

Private funding for such a complex infrastructure project was of unprecedented scale. An initial equity of 45 million was raised by CTG/F-M, increased by 206 million private institutional placement, 770 million was raised in a public share offer that included press and television advertisements, a syndicated bank loan and letter of credit arranged 5 billion. Privately financed, the total investment costs at 1985 prices were 2600 million. At the 1994 completion actual costs were, in 1985 prices, 4650 million: an 80% cost overrun. The cost overrun was partly due to enhanced safety, security, and environmental demands. Financing costs were 140% higher than forecast.

Construction

Eleven tunnel boring machines, working from both sides of the Channel, cut through chalk marl to construct two rail tunnels and a service tunnel. The vehicle shuttle terminals are at Cheriton (part of Folkestone) and Coquelles, and are connected to the British and French motorways (M20 and A16 respectively).

Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994. In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was 4650 million (equivalent to 10152 million today), an 80% cost overrun. At the peak of construction 15,000 people were employed with daily expenditure over 3 million. Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring.

Completion

The Channel Tunnel was opened in Calais on 6 May 1994 by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President Franois Mitterrand

A small, two-inch (50-mm) diameter pilot hole allowed the service tunnel to break through without ceremony on 30 October 1990. On 1 December 1990, Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette broke through the service tunnel with the media watching. Eurotunnel completed the tunnel on time, and the tunnel was officially opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President Franois Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The Queen travelled through the tunnel to Calais on a Eurostar train, which stopped nose to nose with the train that carried President Mitterrand from Paris. Following the ceremony President Mitterrand and the Queen travelled on Le Shuttle to a similar ceremony in Folkestone.

The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), now called High Speed 1, runs 69 miles (111 km) from St Pancras railway station in London to the Channel Tunnel portal at Folkestone in Kent. It cost 5.8 billion. On 16 September 2003 UK Prime Minister Tony Blair opened the first section of High Speed 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007 the Queen officially opened High Speed 1 and St Pancras International station, replacing the original slower link to Waterloo International railway station. On High Speed 1 trains travelling at speeds up to 300 km/h (186 mph), the journey from London to Paris takes 2 hours 15 minutes and London to Brussels takes 1 hour 51 minutes.

In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with Popular Mechanics, selected the tunnel as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.

Engineering

The Channel Tunnel exhibit at the National Railway Museum in York, England, showing the circular cross section of the tunnel with the overhead line powering a Eurostar train. Also visible is the segmented tunnel lining

Surveying undertaken in the twenty years before tunnel construction confirmed earlier speculations that a tunnel route could be bored through a chalk marl stratum. The chalk marl was conducive to tunnelling, with impermeability, ease of excavation and strength. While on the English side the chalk marl ran along the entire length of the tunnel, on the French side a length of 5 kilometres (3 mi) had variable and difficult geology. The Channel Tunnel consists of three bores: two 7.6-metre (25 ft) diameter rail tunnels, 30 metres (98 ft) apart, 50 kilometres (31 mi) in length with a 4.8-metre (16 ft) diameter service tunnel in between. There are also cross-passages and piston relief ducts. The service tunnel was used as a pilot tunnel, boring ahead of the main tunnels to determine the conditions. English access was provided at Shakespeare Cliff, while French access came from a shaft at Sangatte. The French side used five tunnel boring machines (TBMs), the English side used six. The service tunnel uses Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire safety was a critical design issue.

Between the portals at Beussingue and Castle Hill the tunnel is 50.5 kilometres (31 mi) long, with 3.3 kilometres (2 mi) under land on the French side, 9.3 kilometres (6 mi) under land on the UK side and 37.9 kilometres (24 mi) under sea. This makes the Channel Tunnel the second longest rail tunnel in the world, behind the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but with the longest under-sea section. The average depth is 45 metres (148 ft) below the seabed. On the UK side, of the expected 5 million cubic metres (6.510^6 cu yd) of spoil approximately 1 million cubic metres (1.310^6 cu yd) was used for fill at the terminal site, and the remainder was deposited at Lower Shakespeare Cliff behind a seawall, reclaiming 74 acres (30 ha) of land. This land was then made into the Samphire Hoe Country Park. Environmental impact assessment did not identify any major risks for the project, and further studies into safety, noise, and air pollution were overall positive. However, environmental objections were raised over a high-speed link to London.

Geology

Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed. For the majority of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer)

Successful tunnelling under the channel required a sound understanding of the topography and geology and the selection of the best rock strata through which to tunnel. The geology generally consists of northeasterly dipping Cretaceous strata, part of the northern limb of the Wealden-Boulonnais dome. Characteristics include:

Continuous chalk on the cliffs on either side of the Channel containing no major faulting, as observed by Verstegan in 1698

Four geological strata, marine sediments laid down 90100 million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable Gault Clay. A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in between the chalk marl and gault clay

A 2530-metre (8298 ft) layer of chalk marl (French: craie bleue) in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to present the best tunnelling medium. The chalk has a clay content of 3040% providing impermeability to groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support. Ideally the tunnel would be bored in the bottom 15 metres (49 ft) of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet.

On the English side of the channel, the strata dip less than 5, however, on the French side, this increases to 20. Jointing and faulting is present on both the English and French sides. On the English side, only minor faults of displacement less than 2 metres (7 ft) exist. On the French side, displacements of up to 15 metres (49 ft) are present owing to the Quenocs anticlinal fold. The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remoulded clay. The increased dip and faulting restricted the selection of route on the French side. To avoid confusion microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl. On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder, more brittle, and more fractured than on the English side. This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the French and English sides.

No major geological hazards were identified; however, the Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangaered, and Castle Hill landslip located at the English portal, caused concerns. Identified by the 196465 geophysical survey, the Fosse Dangaered is an infilled valley system extending 80 metres (262 ft) below the seabed, 500 metres (1,640 ft) south of the tunnel route, located mid-channel. A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel, and so the tunnel route was made as far north and deep as possible. The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris. Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing and inserting drainage adits. The service tunnels were pilot tunnels preceding the main tunnels, so that the geology, areas of crushed rock, and zones of high water inflow could be predicted. Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnels, in the form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing.

Surveying

Marine soundings and samplings by Thom de Gamond were carried out during 183367, establishing the seabed depth at a maximum of 55 metres (180 ft) and the continuity of geological strata (layers). Surveying continued over many years, with 166 marine and 70 land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4000 line kilometres of marine geophysical survey completed. Surveys were undertaken in 195859, 196465, 197274 and 198688.

The surveying in 195859 catered for immersed tube and bridge designs as well as a bored tunnel, and thus a wide area was investigated. At this time marine geophysics surveying for engineering projects was in its infancy, with poor positioning and resolution from seismic profiling. The 1964-65 surveys concentrated on a northerly route that left the English coast at Dover harbour; using 70 boreholes, an area of deeply weathered rock with high permeability was located just south of Dover harbour.

Given the previous survey results and access constraints, a more southerly route was investigated in the 197273 survey and the route was confirmed to be feasible. Information for the tunnelling project also came from work before the 1975 cancellation. On the French side at Sangatte a deep shaft with adits was made. On the English side at Shakespeare Cliff, the government allowed 250 metres (820 ft) of 4.5 metres (15 ft) diameter tunnel to be driven. The actual tunnel alignment, method of excavation and support were essentially the same as the 1975 attempt. In the 198697 survey, previous findings were reinforced and the nature of the gault clay and tunnelling medium, chalk marl that made up 85% of the route, were investigated. Geophysical techniques from the oil industry were employed.

Tunnelling

Typical tunnel cross section, with a service tunnel between twin rail tunnels. Shown linking the rail tunnels is a piston relief duct, necessary to manage pressure changes due to the movement of trains

Tunnelling between England and France was a major engineering challenge, with the only precedent being the undersea Seikan Tunnel in Japan. A serious risk with underwater tunnels is major water inflow due to the water pressure from the sea above under weak ground conditions. The Channel Tunnel also had the challenge of timeeing privately funded, early financial return was paramount.

The objective was to construct: two 7.6-metre (25 ft) diameter rail tunnels, 30 metres (98 ft) apart, 50 kilometres (31 mi) in length; a 4.8-metre (16 ft) diameter service tunnel between the two main tunnels; pairs of 3.3-metre (11 ft) diameter cross-passages linking the rail tunnels to the service tunnel at 375-metre (1,230 ft) spacing; piston relief ducts 2-metre (7 ft) diameter connecting the rail tunnels at 250-metre (820 ft) spacing; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels. The service tunnel always preceded the main tunnels by at least 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) to ascertain the ground conditions. There was plenty of experience with tunnelling through chalk in the mining industry. The undersea crossover caverns were a complex engineering problem. The French cavern was based on the Mount Baker Ridge freeway tunnel in the USA. The UK cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main tunnels to avoid delay.

Precast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were used, but different solutions were used on the English and French sides. On the French side, neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast iron or high-strength reinforced concrete were used. On the English side, the main requirement was for speed and bolting of cast-iron lining segments was only carried out in areas of poor geology. In the UK rail tunnels, eight lining segments plus a key segment were used; on the French side, five segments plus a key segment. On the French side, a 55-metre (180 ft) diameter 75-metre (246 ft) deep grout-curtained shaft at Sangatte was used for access. On the English side, a marshalling area was 140 metres (459 ft) below the top of Shakespeare Cliff, and the New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM) was first applied in the chalk marl here. On the English side, the land tunnels were driven from Shakespeare Cliff, the same place as the marine tunnels, not from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough for all of the drives and, despite environmental objections, tunnel spoil was placed behind a reinforced concrete seawall, on condition of placing the chalk in an enclosed lagoon to avoid wide dispersal of chalk fines. Owing to limited space, the precast lining factory was on the Isle of Grain in the Thames estuary.

On the French side, owing to the greater permeability to water, earth pressure balance TBMs with open and closed modes were used. The TBMs were of a closed nature during the initial 5 kilometres (3 mi), but then operated as open, boring through the chalk marl stratum. This minimised the impact to the ground and allowed high water pressures to be withstood, and it also alleviated the need to grout ahead of the tunnel. The French effort required five TBMs: two main marine machines, one main land machine (the short land drives of 3 km allowed one TBM to complete the first drive then reverse direction and complete the other), and two service tunnel machines. On the English side, the simpler geology allowed faster open-faced TBMs. Six machines were used, all commenced digging from Shakespeare Cliff, three marine-bound and three for the land tunnels. Towards the completion of the undersea drives, the UK TBMs were driven steeply downwards and buried clear of the tunnel. The French TBMs then completed the tunnel and were dismantled. A 900 mm gauge railway was used on the English side during construction.

In contrast to the English machines, which were simply given alphanumeric names, the French tunnelling machines were all named after women: Brigitte, Europa, Catherine, Virginie, Pascaline, Sverine.

Railway design

Interior of Eurotunnel Shuttle, a vehicle shuttle train. The largest railway wagons in the world, the shuttle trains transport vehicles between terminals on either side of the tunnel

Communications

There are three communication systems in the tunnel: concession radio (CR) for mobile vehicles and personnel within Eurotunnel’s Concession (terminals, tunnels, coastal shafts); track-to-train radio (TTR) for secure speech and data between trains and the railway control centre; Shuttle internal radio (SIR) for communication between shuttle crew and to passengers over car radios.

Power supply

All tunnel services run on electricity, shared equally from English and French sources. Power is delivered to the locomotives via an overhead line (catenary) at 25 kV 50 Hz.

A large proportion of the railway south of London uses a 750 V DC third rail to deliver electrical power; however since the opening of High Speed 1 there is no need to use the third rail system for any part of the Eurostar journey. High Speed 1, the tunnel itself and the route to Paris has power provided via overhead catenary at 25 kV 50 Hz. The railways in Brussels are also electrified by overhead catenaries, but at 3000 V DC.

Signalling

A cab signalling system is used that gives information directly to train drivers on a display. There is Automatic Train Protection (ATP) that stops the train if the speed differs from that indicated on the in-cab display. TVM430, as used on LGV Nord, is used in the tunnel. The maximum allowed speed is 160 km/h.

Track system

The American Sonneville International Corporation track system consisting of UIC60 rails on 900A grade resting on microcellular EVA pads, bolted into concrete was chosen. The larger European GB+ loading gauge was used rather that one of the smaller UK alternatives; this gauge is maintained on High Speed 1 as far as Barking in east London. ballasted track was ruled out owing to maintenance constraints and a need for geometric stability.

Rolling stock

Eurotunnel Shuttle

Main articles: Eurotunnel Shuttle and Eurotunnel Class 9

Initially 38 Le Shuttle locomotives were commissioned, working in pairs with one at each end of a shuttle train. The shuttles have two separate halves: single and double deck. Each half has two loading/unloading wagons and twelve carrier wagons. Eurotunnel’s original order was for nine tourist shuttles.

HGV shuttles also have two halves, with each half containing one loading wagon, one unloading wagon and 14 carrier wagons. There is a club car behind the leading locomotive. Eurotunnel originally ordered six HGV shuttles rakes.

Freight locomotives

See also: British Rail Class 92

Forty-six Class 92 locomotives for hauling freight trains and overnight passenger trains (the Nightstar project, which was abandoned) were commissioned, which can run on both overhead AC and third-rail DC power.

International passenger

Main article: British Rail Class 373

Thirty-one Eurostar trainsased on the French TGVuilt to UK loading gauge, and with many modifications for safety within the tunnel, were commissioned, with split ownership between British Rail, French National Railway Company and National Railway Company of Belgium. British Rail ordered seven more for services north of London.

At the end of 2009, extensive fire-proofing requirements were dropped and Deutsche Bahn received permission to run German Intercity-Express (ICE) trains through the Channel Tunnel in the future.

Service locomotives

Diesel locomotives for rescue and shunting work are Eurotunnel Class 0001 and Eurotunnel Class 0031.

Operation

Usage and services

A Channel Tunnel traffic graph showing the number of passengers and tonnes of freight. Freight vehicle shuttle numbers dropped in 1996/7 owing to closure of the service after the November 1996 fire

The British terminal at Cheriton in west Folkestone. The terminal services shuttle trains that carry vehicles, and is linked to the M20 motorway

The Folkestone White Horse is the last view of England for most passengers embarking at the Cheriton terminal

Services offered by the tunnel are:

Eurotunnel Shuttle (formerly Le Shuttle) roll-on roll-off shuttle service for road vehicles,

Eurostar passenger trains,

through freight trains.

Both the freight and passenger traffic forecasts that led to the construction of the tunnel were largely and universally overestimated. Particularly, Eurotunnel’s commissioned forecasts were over-predictions. Although the captured share of Channel crossings (competing with air and sea) was forecast correctly, high competition and reduced tariffs has led to low revenue. Overall cross-Channel traffic was overestimated.

Passenger traffic volumes

Total cross-tunnel passenger traffic volumes peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, then dropped to 14.9 million in 2003, from then rising again to 16.1 million in 2008.

At the time of deciding to build the tunnel, 15.9 million passengers were predicted for Eurostar trains in the opening year. In 1995, the first full year, actual numbers were a little over 2.9 million, growing to 7.1 million in 2000, then dropping again to 6.3 million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by the lack of a high-speed connection on the British side. After the completion of High Speed 1 (formerly CTRL) to London in two stages in 2003 and 2007, traffic increased. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers in cross-Channel-Tunnel traffic, a 10% increase over the previous year, despite traffic limitations due to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire.

 Year 

Passengers transported…

by Eurostar[A]

(actual ticket sales)

by Eurotunnel Passenger Shuttles

(estimated, millions)

Total

(estimated, millions)

1994

~100,000

0.2

0.3

1995

2,920,309

4.4

7.3

1996

4,995,010

7.9

12.9

1997

6,004,268

8.6

14.6

1998

6,307,849

12.1

18.4

1999

6,593,247

11.0

17.6

2000

7,130,417

9.9

17.0

2001

6,947,135

9.4

16.3

2002

6,602,817

8.6

15.2

2003

6,314,795

8.6

14.9

2004

7,276,675

7.8

15.1

2005

7,454,497

8.2

15.7

2006

7,858,337

7.8

15.7

2007

8,260,980

7.9

16.2

2008

9,113,371

7.0

16.1

A only passengers taking Eurostar to cross the Channel

Freight traffic volumes

Cross-tunnel freight traffic volumes have been erratic, with a decrease during 1997 due to a closure caused by a fire in a freight shuttle. The total freight crossings increased over the period, indicating the substitutability of the tunnel by sea crossings. The tunnel has achieved a cross-Channel freight traffic market share close to or above Eurotunnel’s 1980s predictions but Eurotunnel’s 1990 and 1994 predictions were overestimates.

For freight transported on through freight trains, the first year freight prediction was 7.2 million gross tonnes, however, the 1995 figure was 1.3 million gross tonnes. Through freight volumes peaked in 1998 at 3.1 million tonnes. However, with continuing problems, this figure fell back to 1.21 million tonnes in 2007, increasing again slightly to 1.24 million tonnes in 2008.

However, together with that carried on freight shuttles, freight traffic growth has occurred since opening, with 6.4 million tonnes carried in 1995, 18.4 million tonnes recorded in 2003 and 19.6 million tonnes in 2007.

 Year 

Freight transported…

by through freight trains

(actual tonnes)

by Eurotunnel Truck Shuttles

(estimated, million tonnes)

Total

(estimated, million tonnes)

1994

0

0.8

0.8

1995

1,349,802

5.1

6.4

1996

2,783,774

6.7

9.5

1997

2,925,171

3.3

6.2

1998

3,141,438

9.2

12.3

1999

2,865,251

10.9

13.8

2000

2,947,385

14.7

17.6

2001

2,447,432

15.6

18.0

2002

1,463,580

15.6

17.1

2003

1,743,686

16.7

18.4

2004

1,889,175

16.6

18.5

2005

1,587,790

17.0

18.6

2006

1,569,429

16.9

18.5

2007

1,213,647

18.4

19.6

2008

~1,240,000[B]

14.2

15.4

B From October 2007, Eurotunnel invoices through railfreight by trains rather than tonne.

Eurotunnel’s freight subsidiary is Europorte 2. In September 2006 EWS, the UK’s largest rail freight operator, announced that owing to cessation of UK-French government subsidies of 52 million per annum to cover the Channel Tunnel “Minimum User Charge” (a subsidy of around 13,000 per train, at a traffic level of 4,000 trains per annum), freight trains would stop running after 30 November.

Economic performance

Shares in Eurotunnel were issued at 3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to 11.00. Delays and cost overruns led to the share price dropping; during demonstration runs in October 1994 the share price reached an all-time low value. Eurotunnel suspended payment on its debt in September 1995 to avoid bankruptcy. In December 1997 the British and French governments extended Eurotunnel’s operating concession by 34 years to 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel occurred in mid-1998, reducing debt and financial charges. Despite the restructuring The Economist reported in 1998 that to break even Eurotunnel would have to increase fares, traffic and market share for sustainability. A cost benefit analysis of the Channel Tunnel indicated that there were few impacts on the wider economy and few developments associated with the project, and that the British economy would have been better off if the tunnel had not been constructed.

Under the terms of the Concession, Eurotunnel was obliged to investigate a cross-Channel road tunnel. In December 1999 road and rail tunnel proposals were presented to the British and French governments, but it was stressed that there was not enough demand for a second tunnel. A three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of control zones wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel, with the French border controls on the UK side of the tunnel and vice versa. For certain city-to-city trains, the train itself represents a control zone. A binational emergency plan coordinates UK and French emergency activities.

In 1999 Eurostar posted its first ever net profits, having previously made a loss of 925m in 1995.

Terminals

A Peugeot 807 entering a shuttle wagon at the French terminal at Coquelles near Calais in northern France

The terminals sites are at Cheriton (Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (Calais in France). The terminals are unique facilities designed to transfer vehicles from the motorway onto trains at a rate of 700 cars and 113 heavy vehicles per hour. The UK site uses the M20 motorway. The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the shuttle. The area of the UK site was severely constrained and the design was challenging. The French layout was achieved more easily. To achieve design output, the shuttles accept cars on double-decks; for flexibility, ramps were placed inside the shuttles to provide access to the top decks. At Folkestone there is 20 kilometres (12 mi) of mainline track and 45 turnouts with eight platforms. At Calais there is 30 kilometres (19 mi) of track with 44 turnouts. At the terminals the shuttle trains traverse a figure eight to reduce uneven wear on the wheels.

Regional impact

A 1996 report from the European Commission predicted that Kent and Nord-Pas de Calais had to face increased traffic volumes due to general growth of cross-Channel traffic and traffic attracted by the tunnel. In Kent, a high-speed rail line to London would transfer traffic from road to rail. Kent’s regional development would benefit from the tunnel, but being so close to London restricts the benefits. Gains are in the traditional industries and are largely dependent on the development of Ashford International passenger station, without which Kent would be totally dependent on London’s expansion. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys a strong internal symbolic effect of the Tunnel which results in significant gains in manufacturing.

The removal of a bottleneck by means like the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily induce economic gains in all adjacent regions, the image of a region being connected to the European high-speed transport and active political response are more important for regional economic development. Tunnel-induced regional development is small compared to general economic growth. The South East of England is likely to benefit developmentally and socially from faster and cheaper transport to continental Europe, but the benefits are unlikely to be equally distributed throughout the region. The overall environmental impact is almost certainly negative.

Five years after the opening of the tunnel, there were few and small impacts on the wider economy, and it was difficult to identify major developments associated with the tunnel. It has been postulated that the British economy would have actually been better off without the costs from the construction project, both Eurotunnel and Eurostar, companies heavily involved in the Channel Tunnel’s construction and operation, have had to resort to large amounts of government aid to deal with debts amounted. Eurotunnel has been described as being in a serious situation.

Incidents

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Fires

Main articles: 1996 Channel Tunnel fire and 2008 Channel Tunnel fire

There have been three fires in the Channel Tunnel that were significant enough to close the tunnelll on the heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttlesnd other more minor incidents.

During an “invitation only” testing phase on 9 December 1994 a fire broke out in a Ford Escort car whilst its owner had been loading it on to the upper deck of a tourist shuttle. The fire started at approximately 10:00 with the shuttle train stationary in the Folkestone terminal and was extinguished around 40 minutes later with no passenger injuries.

On 18 November 1996 a fire broke out on a heavy goods vehicle shuttle wagon in the tunnel but nobody was seriously hurt. The exact cause is unknown, although it was not a Eurotunnel equipment or rolling stock problem; it may have been due to arson of a heavy goods vehicle. It is estimated that the heart of the fire reached 1,000 C (1,800 F), with the tunnel severely damaged over 46 metres (151 ft), with some 500 metres (1,640 ft) affected to some extent. Full operation recommenced six months after the fire.

The tunnel was closed for several hours on 21 August 2006, when a truck on an HGV shuttle train caught fire. On 11 September 2008 a fire occurred in the Channel Tunnel at 13:57 GMT. The incident started on a freight-carrying vehicle train travelling towards France. The event occurred 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from the French entrance to the tunnel. No one was killed but several people were taken to hospitals suffering from smoke inhalation, and minor cuts and bruises. The tunnel was closed to all traffic, with the undamaged South Tunnel reopening for limited services two days later. Full service resumed on 9 February 2009 after repairs costing 60 million.

Train failures

On the night of 19/20 February 1996, approximately 1,000 passengers became trapped in the Channel Tunnel when two British Rail Class 373 trains on continent-bound Eurostar service broke down owing to electronic failures caused by snow and ice.

On 3 August 2007 an electrical failure lasting six hours caused passengers to be trapped in the tunnel on a Eurotunnelshuttle crossing.

On the evening of 18 December 2009, during the December 2009 European snowfall, five London-bound trains operating Eurostar services failed inside the tunnel, trapping 2,000 passengers in the tunnel overnight. The large number of failed trains meant that both running tunnels were blocked. Five Class 373 trains had departed from Brussels and Paris and encountered cold temperatures in Northern France, the coldest for eight years. A Eurotunnel spokesperson explained that the problem had arisen because of ‘fluffy snow’ in France, which had evaded the ‘winterisation’ shields designed to stop snow getting into the electrics. Electrical failure was then caused by the transition from the cold air in France to the warm atmosphere inside the tunnel. Four of the failed trains had been carrying passengers, with the fifth being empty; one train from Brussels had been turned back to Brussels before reaching the tunnel. Two trains were hauled out of the tunnel using diesel-powered Eurotunnel Class 0001. The blocking of the Channel Tunnel led to the implementation of Operation Stack, the transformation of the M20 motorway into a linear car park.

Problems started at around 21:00, with Kent fire brigade being alerted at 21:46. The journeys of those involved took between eleven and sixteen hours. Snow that had built up on the trains then melted in the heat of the tunnel, the water causing electrical faults. Of the five Class 373 trains and two turned back:

18:59 Brusselsondon (9157); towed to London St Pancras by a Eurotunnel diesel locomotive. Delay of 3 hours 49 minutes.

18:43 Parisondon (9053); 700 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel. Passengers taken to Ashford International railway station, for conventional trains to London. Late into London by 12 hours, arriving at 08:00 the next morning.

19:13 Parisondon (9055); Coupled to adjacent 20:13 Eurostar train behind and dragged out by diesel locomotive, then continued to London. Hauled to Folkestone and picked up passengers from 20:13 Paris service behind it.

19:37 Disneylandondon (9057); 664 passengers evacuated via service tunnel to an empty Eurotunnel shuttle train in opposite running tunnel and taken via France.

20:13 Parisondon (9059); Coupled to adjacent 19:13 Eurostar train in front, passengers transferred to the earlier 19:13 train for journey to London or taken via Folkestone and transported in five coaches by road to London.

20:29 Brusselsondon (9163), held at Calais then turned back to Brussels before reaching the Channel Tunnel.

21:13 Parisondon (9063), held at Calais then turned back to Paris before reaching the Channel Tunnel.

The occasion was the first time during the fifteen years that a Eurostar train had to be evacuated inside the tunnel itself; the failing of four at once being described as “unprecedented”. The Channel Tunnel reopened at 05:40 CET the following morning.

The following evening, on 19 December 2009, an extra Eurostar service from Paris broke down. The train successfully negotiated the Channel Tunnel itself, then broke down outside. A second train was sent to tow the first to London, but failed at 18:25 while trying to haul it up a steep incline crossing Thurrock Viaduct on the outskirts of London. Eurostar passenger services restarted on 22 December 2009.

Nirj Deva, Member of the European Parliament for South East England, has called on Eurostar chief executive Richard Brown to resign over the incidents.

A further Class 373 unit on Brusselsondon service broke down in the tunnel on 7 January 2010. The train had 236 passengers on board and was towed to Ashford; other trains that had not yet reached the tunnel were turned back.

An independent report on the 18/19 December 2009 incidents was issued on 12 February 2010. The report was compiled by Christopher Garnett (former CEO of Great North Eastern Railway) and Claude Gressier (a French transport expert) and made 21 recommendations.
Asylum and immigration

Immigrants and would-be asylum seekers have been known to use the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had already attracted international press attention, and the French Red Cross opened a refugee centre at Sangatte in 1999, using a warehouse once used for tunnel construction; by 2002 it housed up to 1500 persons at a time, most of them trying to get to the UK. At one point, large numbers came from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, but African and Eastern European countries are also represented.

Most migrants who got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train, but others used Eurostar. Though the facilities were fenced, airtight security was deemed impossible; refugees would even jump from bridges onto moving trains. In several incidents people were injured during the crossing; others tampered with railway equipment, causing delays and requiring repairs. Eurotunnel said it was losing 5m per month because of the problem. A dozen refugees have died in crossing attempts.

In 2001 and 2002, several riots broke out at Sangatte and groups of refugees (up to 550 in a December 2001 incident) stormed the fences and attempted to enter en masse. Immigrants have also arrived as legitimate Eurostar passengers without proper entry papers.

Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of Sangatte, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre. The United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed the UK for its lax asylum rules and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy. The cause clbre nature of the problem even included journalists detained as they followed refugees onto railway property.

In 2002, after the European Commission told France that it was in breach of European Union rules on the free transfer of goods, because of the delays and closures as a result of its poor security, a double fence was built at a cost of 5 million, reducing the numbers of refugees detected each week reaching Britain on goods trains from 250 to almost none. Other measures included CCTV cameras and increased police patrols. At the end of 2002, the Sangatte centre was closed after the UK agreed to take some of its refugees.

See also: asylum shopping

Safety

The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air ventilation, and for emergency evacuation. The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the tunnel. The service vehicles are rubber-tyred with a buried guidance wire system. Twenty-four STTS vehicles were made, and are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and in emergencies. “Pods” with different purposes, up to a payload of 2.55 t (2.85.5 tons), are inserted into the side of the vehicles. The STTS vehicles cannot turn around within the tunnel, and are driven from either end. The maximum speed is 80 km/h (50 mph) when the steering is locked. A smaller fleet of fifteen Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS) were introduced to supplement the STTSs. The LADOGS have a short wheelbase with a 3.4 m (11 ft) turning circle allowing two-point turns within the service tunnel. Steering cannot be locked like the STTS vehicles, and maximum speed is 50 km/h (31 mph). Pods up to 1 tonne can be loaded onto the rear of the vehicles. Drivers in the tunnel sit on the right, and the vehicles drive on the left. Owing to the risk of French personnel driving on their native right side of the road, sensors in the road vehicles alert the driver if the vehicle strays to the right side of the tunnel.

The three tunnels contain 6,000 tonnes (6,600 tons) of air that needs to be conditioned for comfort and safety. Air is supplied from ventilation buildings at Shakespeare Cliff and Sangatte, with each building capable of full duty providing 100% standby capacity. Supplementary ventilation also exists on either side of the tunnel. In the event of a fire, ventilation is used to keep smoke out of the service tunnel and move smoke in one direction in the main tunnel to give passengers clean air. The Channel Tunnel was the first mainline railway tunnel to have special cooling equipment. Heat is generated from traction equipment and drag. The design limit was set at 30 C (86 F), using a mechanical cooling system with refrigeration plants on both the English and French sides that run chilled water circulating in pipes within the tunnel.

Trains travelling at high speed create piston-effect pressure changes that can affect passenger comfort, ventilation systems, tunnel doors, fans and the structure of the trains, and drag on the trains. Piston relief ducts of 2-metre (7 ft) diameter were chosen to solve the problem, with 4 ducts per kilometre to give close to optimum results. Unfortunately this design led to unacceptable lateral forces on the trains so a reduction in train speed was required and restrictors were installed in the ducts.

The safety issue of a fire on a passenger-vehicle shuttle garnered much attention, with Eurotunnel itself noting that fire was the risk gathering the most attention in a 1994 Safety Case for three reasons: ferry companies opposed to passengers being allowed to remain with their cars; Home Office statistics indicating that car fires had doubled in ten years; and the long length of the tunnel. Eurotunnel commissioned the UK Fire Research Station to give reports of vehicle fires, as well as liaising with Kent Fire Brigade to gather vehicle fire statistics over one year. Fire tests took place at the French Mines Research Establishment with a mock wagon used to investigate how cars burned. The wagon door systems are designed to withstand fire inside the wagon for 30 minutes, longer than the transit time of 27 minutes. Wagon air conditioning units help to purge dangerous fumes from inside the wagon before travel. Each wagon has a fire detection and extinguishing system, with sensing of ions or ultraviolet radiation, smoke and gases that can trigger halon gas to quench a fire. Since the Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) wagons are not covered, fire sensors are located on the loading wagon and in the tunnel itself. A 10-inch (250 mm) water main in the service tunnel provides water to the main tunnels at 125-metre (410 ft) intervals. The ventilation system can control smoke movement. Special arrival sidings exist to accept a train that is on fire, as the train is not allowed to stop whilst on fire in the tunnel. Eurotunnel has banned a wide range of hazardous goods from travelling in the tunnel. Two STTS vehicles with firefighting pods are on duty at all times, with a maximum delay of 10 minutes before they reach a burning train.

See also

British Rail Class 373

Irish Sea tunnel

Japan-Korea Undersea Tunnel

List of Rail megaprojects

Samphire Hoe

Notes

^ “The Channel Tunnel”. raileurope.com. http://www.raileurope.com/us/rail/eurostar/channel_tunnel.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b Institute of Civil Engineers p. 95

^ “Turkey Building the World’s Deepest Immersed Tube Tunnel”. Popular Mechanics. http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/4217338.html?series=23. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b Chisholm, Michael (1995). Britain on the edge of Europe. London: Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 0415119219. 

^ a b Reynolds, Christopher (19 May 1996). “Seven Wonders of the World: The Modern List”. The Plain Dealer. 

^ a b Whiteside p. 17

^ “The Channel Tunnel”. library.thinkquest.org. http://library.thinkquest.org/5983/pages/chunnel.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j Wilson pp. 1421

^ a b Flyvbjerg et al. p. 12

^ “Four men caught in Channel Tunnel”. BBC News. 4 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7171985.stm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ “Sangatte refugee camp”. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/23/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1. Retrieved 19 July 2009}. 

^ “Subterranea Britannica: Channel Tunnel – 1880 attempt”. subbrit.org. http://www.subbrit.org.uk/sb-sites/sites/c/channel_tunnel_1880_attempt/index.shtml. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Whiteside pp. 1823

^ “The Proposed Tunnel Between England and France”. The New York Times. 7 August 1866. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9A00EFD9133DE53BBC4F53DFBE66838D679FDE. Retrieved 3 January 2008. 

^ Gladstone, William (1902). A. W. Hutton & H.J. Cohen. ed. The Speeches Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone On Home Rule, Criminal Law, Welsh And Irish Nationality, National Debt And The Queen’s Reign. The Speeches And Public Addresses Of The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P.. X. London: Methuen And Company. 

^ Kirkland pp. 1011

^ a b c Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 9697

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 3

^ a b “On this day: Tunnel links UK and Europe”. BBC News. 1 December 1990. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1/newsid_2516000/2516473.stm. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ a b c Anderson, pp. xvivii

^ Harlow, John (2 April 1995). “Phantom Trains Wreak Havoc in Channel Tunnel”. The Times. 

^ “ingenious: Navvies”. ingenious. 11 March 2008. http://www.ingenious.org.uk/Read/Identity/RailwaysandIdentity/Navvies/. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ “Thirteen workers die as safety standards are ignored in race to build Olympic sites”. The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/thirteen-workers-die-as-safety-standards-are-ignored-in-race-to-build-olympic-sites-558698.html. Retrieved 26 September 2008. 

^ Glenn Frankel (31 October 1990). “Britain and France Link Up-at Last”. The Washington Post. 

^ “Chunnel birthday”. Evening Mail (Birmingham Post & Mail Ltd). 2 December 2000. 

^ a b “On This Day – 1994: President and Queen open Chunnel”. BBC News. 6 May 1994. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/6/newsid_2511000/2511653.stm. Retrieved 12 January 2008. 

^ Woodman, Peter (14 November 2007). “High-speed Rail Link Finally Completed”. Press Association National Newswire. 

^ “New high-speed rail line opens to link Britain to Europe”. Channel NewsAsia (MediaCorp News). 15 November 2007. 

^ Gilbert, Jane (1 December 2006). “`Chunnel’ workers link France and Britain”. The Daily Post (New Zealand) (APN New Zealand Ltd). 

^ Kirkland p. 13

^ Institute of Civil Engineers p. 208

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 51

^ Harris, C.S. et al., ed (1996). Engineering Geology of the Channel Tunnel. London: Thomas Telford. p. 57. ISBN 0727720457. 

^ a b c Kirkland pp. 2150

^ a b c Kirkland pp. 2226

^ a b c d Kirkland pp. 63128

^ Wilson p. 38

^ Kirkland p. 29

^ Wilson p. 44

^ Kirkland pp. 117128

^ Pierre-Jean Pompee. “Channel Tunnel: Tunnel’s Construction”. pagesperso-orange.fr. http://pagesperso-orange.fr/batisseurs-tunnel/3tunnels.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Kirkland pp. 129132

^ Kirkland pp. 134148

^ a b Article: Railway electric traction 9 August 2009

^ Kirkland pp. 149155

^ Article-de: Eurotunnel#Betrieb 9 August 2009

^ a b Kirkland pp. 157174

^ “Strategic Freight Network: The Longer-Term Vision”. Department for Transport. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/rail/strategyfinance/strategy/freightnetwork/. Retrieved 17 May 2009. 

^ Kirkland pp. 175211

^ Edmonds, Sam (16 December 2009). “Deutsche Bahn gets access to Channel Tunnel”. Deutsche Welle. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5018915,00.html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf. Retrieved 20 December 2009. 

^ “Deutsche Bahn allowed through chunnel”. Austin News. 16 December 2009. http://www.austinnews.net/story/578370. Retrieved 20 December 2009. 

^ a b Flyvbjerg et al. p. 22

^ a b c d e f g Ricard Anguera (May 2006). “The Channel Tunneln ex post economic evaluation”. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 40 (4): 291315. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2005.08.009. 

^ a b “Eurotunnel 2008 traffic and revenue figures”. Eurotunnel. 15 January 2009. http://www.eurotunnel.com. Retrieved 15 January 2009. 

^ a b c d e “Traffic figures”. Eurotunnel. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTheGroup/ukcOperations/ukpTraffic. Retrieved 15 January 2009. 

^ a b “Study Report Annex 2″. Initial East Kent and Ashford Sub-Regional Study for The South East Plan. South East England Regional Assembly. June 2004. pp. Table 11. http://www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/southeastplan/key/study_areas/initial_studies/east_kent_ashford_annex 2.xls. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ “Eurotunnel 2003 Revenue & Traffic”. Eurotunnel. 20 January 2004. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2004/ukcJanuary2004/ukpPr0401Revenue.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ a b “Eurotunnel: 2005 Traffic and revenue figures.”. Eurotunnel. 16 January 2006. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2006/ukcJanuary2006/ukpPr06012005TrafficAndRevenue.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ a b c “Eurotunnel 2007 Traffic and Revenue figures: a remarkable year”. Eurotunnel. 15 January 2008. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2008/ukcJanuary2008/ukpPr0801TrafficAndRevenue2007.htm. Retrieved 21 January 2009. 

^ “Eurotunnel gets backing for freight service”. AFX (Agence France Presse). 28 October 2004. 

^ Dominic O’Connell (3 September 2006). “Chunnel cash row threatens freight trains”. London: The Times. http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article626416.ece. Retrieved 3 September 2006. 

^ “Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition”. josephcoates.com. http://www.josephcoates.com/pdf_files/268_Megaprojects_and_Risk.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2009. 

^ Flyvbjerg et al. pp. 3234

^ Flyvbjerg, B. Buzelius, N. Rothengatter, W (2003). Megaprojects and Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521009464. 

^ “Eurotunnel unveils plans for second link”. Birmingham Post. 6 January 2000. 

^ “The CPS: Channel Tunnel”. Crown Prosecution Service. http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section2/chapter_f.html#_Toc44570638. Retrieved 11 March 2008. 

^ Kirkland p. 331

^ Kirkland pp. 255270

^ European Commission pp. 220222

^ European Commission pp. 248252

^ Fayman, Sonia; Metge, Pierre (September 1995). “The regional impact of the Channel Tunnel: Qualitative and quantitative analysis”. European Planning Studies 3 (3): 333. 

^ Button, Kenneth (July 1990). “The Channel Tunnel: The Economic Implications for the South East of England”. The Geographical Journal 156 (2): 187199. doi:10.2307/635327. 

^ Flyvbjerg et al. p. 6869

^ “Coming soon: the Dome on wheels”. New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200104020018. Retrieved 28 April 2009. 

^ Harrison, Michael (10 February 2004). “Eurotunnel calls for government support after record 1.3bn loss”. The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/eurotunnel-calls-for-government-support-after-record-acircpound13bn-loss-569459.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ “Eurotunnel has 4bn too much debt”. The Telegraph. 12 January 2005. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2917255/Eurotunnel-has-4bn-too-much-debt.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ “Debt-laden Channel tunnel rail link is ‘nationalised’”. The Guardian. 21 February 2006. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2006/feb/21/transportintheuk.politics. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ “Facts and figures Eurotunnel 2000-2004/Forecast 2005: Commentry and a suggestion”. Adacte.com. June 2005. http://www.adacte.com/economiepolitique/hollandais17062005.doc. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ Wolmar, Christian (10 December 1994). “Fire raises Channel Tunnel fears”. The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fire-raises-channel-tunnel-fears-1389084.html. Retrieved 25 December 2009. 

^ “Inquiry into the fire on Heavy Goods Vehicle Shuttle 7539 on 18 November 1996″. Channel Tunnel Safety Authority. May 1997. ISBN 0115519319. http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/CTSA_ChanTun1996.pdf. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ a b C. J. Kirkland (2002). “The fire in the Channel Tunnel” (PDF). Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 17: 129132. doi:10.1016/S0886-7798(02)00014-7. http://www.ita-aites.org/cms/fileadmin/filemounts/ovion/doc/safety/sydney/OS12.PDF. 

^ “Lorry fire closes Channel Tunnel”. BBC News. 21 August 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5271784.stm. Retrieved 21 August 2006. 

^ Rail Accident Investigation Branch (October 2007) Fire on HGV shuttle in the Channel Tunnel 21 August 2006 . Department for Transport. (Report).

^ Robert Wright (12 September 2008). “Channel tunnel fire causes further cancellations”. Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ad05c7e6-8062-11dd-99a9-000077b07658.html. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 

^ “Channel Tunnel Fire Evacuation”. Sky News. 11 September 2008. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Channel-Tunnel-Closed-Due-To-A-Fire/Article/200809215097705?lpos=UK+News_0&lid=ARTICLE_15097705_Channel+Tunnel+Closed+Due+To+A+Fire. Retrieved 9 March 2009. 

^ “Eurotunnel fully open to traffic”. Eurotunnel.com. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcMediaCentre/ukcNewsReleases/ukcNews2009/ukcFebruary2009/ukpPr0902Eurotunnel-back-to-full-capacity.htm. Retrieved 14 January 2010. 

^ Wolmar, Christian (22 February 1996). “Wrong kind of snow in tunnel…”. The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/wrong-kind-of-snow-in-tunnel-1320248.html. Retrieved 21 December 2009. 

^ “Delays after Channel Tunnel fault”. BBC News. 3 August 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/6929713.stm. Retrieved 14 January 2010. 

^ a b c “Severe Weather Brings Eurostar To A Halt”. Sky News. 19 December 2009. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Says-All-Scheduled-Services-Tomorrow-Have-Been-Cancelled/Article/200912315504284. Retrieved 19 December 2009. 

^ Eurostar blames ‘fluffy’ snow for weekend chaos The Times 21 December 09

^ Eurostar cancels trains over snow – Press Association (21 December 09)

^ Cole, Rob (18 December 2009). “‘Nightmare’ Over For Stranded Passengers”. Sky News. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Eurostar-Trains-Trapped-In-Channel-Tunnel-As-Snow-And-Ice-Brings-Services-To-A-Halt/Article/20091…

Drum Brake

History

The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by Louis Renault, though a less-sophisticated drum brake had been used by Maybach a year earlier. In the first drum brakes, the shoes were mechanically operated with levers and rods or cables. From the mid-1930s the shoes were operated with oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons (as in the picture), though some vehicles continued with purely-mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two wheel cylinders.

The shoes in drum brakes are subject to wear and the brakes needed to be adjusted regularly until the introduction of self adjusting drum brakes in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s brake drums on the front wheels of cars were gradually replaced with disc brakes and now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels, with many offering disc brakes on all wheels. However, drum brakes are still often used for handbrakes as it has proven very difficult to design a disc brake suitable for holding a car when it is not in use. Moreover, it is very easy to fit a drum handbrake inside a disc brake so that one unit serves as both service brake and handbrake.

Early type brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the brake assembly. The United States Federal Government began to regulate asbestos production, and brake manufacturers had to switch to non-asbestos linings. Owners initially complained of poor braking with the replacements; however, technology eventually advanced to compensate. A majority of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Many other countries also limit the use of asbestos in brakes.

Self-applying characteristic

Drum brakes have a natural “self-applying” characteristic. The rotation of the drum can drag either or both of the shoes into the friction surface, causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force holding them together. This increases the stopping power without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake’s sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist.

Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure acting on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems usually have servo assistance (“Brake Booster”) to lessen the driver’s pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.

Drum brake designs

Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing or twin leading.

Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design(For Non Servo Systems), or [Primary/Secondary] (For Duo Servo Systems) the shoes being moved by a single double-acting hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point. In this design, one of the brake shoes will always experience the self-applying effect, irrespective of whether the vehicle is moving forwards or backwards. This is particularly useful on the rear brakes, where the footbrake must exert enough force to stop the vehicle from travelling backwards and hold it on a slope. Provided the contact area of the brake shoes is large enough, which isn’t always the case, the self-applying effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred to the rear brakes due of the incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot may be made in the form of a double lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the parking brake system.

Front drum brakes may be of either design in practice, but the twin leading design is more effective. This design uses two actuating cylinders arranged so that both shoes will utilize the self-applying characteristic when the vehicle is moving forwards. The brake shoes pivot at opposite points to each other. This gives the maximum possible braking when moving forwards, but is not so effective when the vehicle is traveling in reverse.

The optimum arrangement of twin leading front brakes with leading/trailing brakes on the rear allows for more braking force to be deployed at the front of the vehicle when it is moving forwards, with less at the rear. This helps to prevent the rear wheels locking up, but still provides adequate braking at the rear when it is needed.

The brake drum itself is frequently made of cast iron, although some vehicles have used aluminum drums, particularly for front-wheel applications. Aluminum conducts heat better than cast iron, which improves heat dissipation and reduces fade. Aluminum drums are also lighter than iron drums, which reduces unsprung weight. Because aluminum wears more easily than iron, aluminum drums will frequently have an iron or steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted to the aluminum outer shell.

Advantages

Drum brakes are still used in some modern cars because of some engineering and cost advantages. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a parking brake. They are often applied to the rear wheels since most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disk brakes as the main brakes. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or as part of the brake disk also known as a banksia brake.

In hybrid vehicle applications, wear on braking systems is greatly reduced by energy recovering motor-generators (see regenerative braking), so some hybrid vehicles such as the GMC Yukon hybrid and Toyota Prius use drum brakes.

Disadvantages

Drum brakes, like most other types, are designed to convert kinetic energy into heat energy via the process of friction. This heat is intended to be further transferred to atmosphere, but can just as easily transfer into other components of the braking system.

Brake drums have to be large to cope with the massive forces that are involved, and they must be able to absorb and dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to atmosphere can be aided by incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking which can cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking.

The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due to one of several processes or more usually an accumulation of all of them.

1. When the drums are heated by hard braking, the diameter of the drum increases slightly due to thermal expansion, this means the brakes shoes have to move farther and the brake pedal has to be depressed further.

2. The properties of the friction material can change if heated, resulting in less friction. This is usually only temporary and the material regains its efficiency when cooled, but if the surface overheats to the point where it becomes glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more permanent. Surface glazing can be worn away with further use of the brakes, but that takes time.

3. Excessive heating of the brake drums can cause the brake fluid to vapourise, which reduces the hydraulic pressure being applied to the brake shoes. Therefore less retardation is achieved for a given amount of pressure on the pedal. The effect is worsened by poor maintenance. If the brake fluid is old and has absorbed moisture it thus has a lower boiling point and brake fade occurs sooner.

Brake fade is not always due to the effects of overheating. If water gets between the friction surfaces and the drum, it acts as a lubricant and reduces braking efficiency. The water tends to stay there until it is heated sufficiently to vapourise, at which point braking efficiency is fully restored.

Disc brakes are not immune to any of these processes, but they deal with heat and water more effectively than drums.

Drum brakes can be grabby if the drum surface gets light rust or if the brake is cold and damp, giving the pad material greater friction. Grabbing can be so severe that the tires skid and continue to skid even when the pedal is released. Grabbiness is the opposite of fade: when the pad friction goes up, the self-assisting nature of the brakes causes application force to go up. If the pad friction and self-amplification are high enough, the brake will stay on due to self-application even when the external application force is released.

Re-arc’ing

Before 1984, it was common to re-arc brake shoes to match the arc within brake drums. This practice, however, was controversial as it removed friction material from the brakes and caused a reduction in the life of the shoes as well as created hazardous asbestos dust. Current design theory is to use shoes for the proper diameter drum, and to simply replace the brake drum when necessary, rather than perform the re-arcing procedure.

Adjustment

Early drum brakes (before about 1955) required periodic adjustment to compensate for drum and shoe wear. If not done sufficiently often long brake pedal travel (“low pedal”) resulted. Low pedal can be a severe hazard when combined with brake fade as the brakes can become ineffective when the pedal bottoms out.

Self adjusting brakes may use a mechanism that engages only when the vehicle is being stopped from reverse motion. This is a traditional method suitable for use where all wheels use drum brakes (most vehicles now use disc brakes on the front wheels). By operating only in reverse it is less likely that the brakes will be adjusted while hot (when the drums are expanded), which could cause dragging brakes that would accelerate wear and increase fuel consumption.

Self adjusting brakes may also operate by a ratchet mechanism engaged as the hand brake is applied, a means suitable for use where only rear drum brakes are used. If the travel of the parking brake actuator lever exceeds a certain amount, the ratchet turns an adjuster screw that moves the brake shoes toward the drum.

The manual adjustment knob is usually at the bottom of the drum and is adjusted via a hole on the opposite side of the wheel. This requires getting underneath the car and moving the clickwheel with a flathead screwdriver. It is important and tedious to adjust each wheel evenly so as to not have the car pull to one side during heavy braking, especially if on the front wheels. Either give each one the same amount of clicks and then perform a road test, or raise each wheel off the ground and spin it by hand measuring how much force it takes and feeling whether or not the shoes are dragging.

Use in music

A brake drum can be very effective in modern concert and film music to provide a non-pitched metal sound similar to an anvil. Some have more resonance than others, and the best method of producing the clearest sound is to hang the drum with nylon cord or to place it on foam. Other methods include mounting the brake drum on a snare drum stand. Either way, the brake drum is struck with hammers or sticks of various weight.

It is also commonly used in steelpan ensembles, where it is called “the iron.”

References

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q The AA Book of the car, 1976

See also

Balancing machine

Brake lining

Brake bleeding

Hydraulic Disc Brakes

v  d  e

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Categories: Vehicle braking technologies | Vehicle parts | BrakesHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from July 2008 | All articles needing additional references

Moroccan Furniture & Home Decor – Moroccan Lamps & Lanterns

Moroccan home decor allure, charm, grace, seductiveness should be enough adjectives to describe the coastal style of countries occupying the northern & southern side of the Mediterranean Sea where this decorating style originates. Moorish influence, the demands of it’s climate, available materials and maturity over time have set the tone for this design and decoration that has spread outward from the region. With bright colors you could get easily with a Moroccan-themed room.

As a much loved regional decorating theme, especially in south of Spain and north of Africa for the tradition it represents, moroccan style will always have an important place. Beyond, it is being altered by the popularity of other decoration themes having shared similarities. Mediterranean will remain an influence for sure as several themes merge into a new form. Already, in America, it’s purity has been lost in a blur of influences and mutations. But, that is all pure speculation. What authentic Moroccan decoration means today is cause enough for enjoyment.

Wall Texture

Walls are predominately textured. It is what gives that pre-requisite aged appearance. An over-all application of neutral sand paint supplies a good base. It’s easier than working with tinted sand paint at a later stage. There are prepared burnished Venetian plaster paints on the market that provide lots of texture. These can be used when working with color accents. Include plaster moldings, cornices and columns when ever you can. Oh the color The sea and the sky and the warmth of the earth. Lavender and creamy yellow make a whimsical appearance in this mixture. Blue is always making an appearance. You will no doubt be using lots of accessories –brightly colorful to muted earthy and aged metallic– in your creation. You can see these colors samples on our armoires, doors, ceilings…. That’s not a warning to exercise caution and agonized pre-meditation in your selection of wall paint. Most walls will exhibit atoned or maybe even a wash effect by mixing some degree of white into all your color choices. By applying some of these same paints at full strength, boldness can be added to appropriate spaces later as your overall project begins to take shape.

Color Accents

Incorporate brilliant mosaic tile designs into rich orange/red terra cotta or brick tiled floors. You can choose to continue the motif by applying the mosaics to the wall in the place of base mold, inlay them around door frames and be sure to make use of mosaic tiles for the kitchen or bathroom back splash. Select a foyer, hall or alcove to try a troweled on red or lavender burnished plaster paint application for a dramatic affect.

Furniture and accessories

Furniture may be elegantly crafted from fine hardwoods or simple rustic designs of common woods. Either way, pieces are low and heavy set and often include accents of tile, iron or marble. Lots of furniture on the market carries a Mediterranean tag but that is as close as it comes to having the authentic scale and quality of the real thing.

Glass, iron and terra cotta have been decorating basics for centuries. The appeal of these works that you’ll want to use in abundance is in knowing the materials used, the production techniques required and workmanship employed are time honored traditions that can’t be changed. It can still be captured! Hang wall tapestry from mounted wrought iron architectural pieces. Wrought iron grills can also be wall mounted to create the illusion of a window, above doorways to accentuate an entrance or to each side of a camel bone mirror to add interest and old world charm. Go back to some of those base paints to color in bulkheads or selected short walls.

Pottery has important application. Either in natural terra cotta or colorfully finished, over sized pots and vases in classic shapes add drama, form and color. Continue enhancing the allure with iron and wood wine racks in the dinning room. Add tapestry runners on side tables and top the one on the dinning table with a cast iron candle holder for quite, romantic dinners. Burnished brass urns, an indoor faux stone water fountain, and of course a thick relief, plastered fireplace hearth are “musts” if you can work them in. The most difficult task you face is knowing when to stop.

Some Final Meditarranean moroccan Inspiration What you want to accomplish is a point of interest, a touch that impresses, a subtle surprise at every turn. If there is one decorating theme with the abundance of choice and style to make that happen this is it. As you sit to work your plan be carried away to lunch at an estate winery near the Mediterranean coast. It is to be in a small, almost enclosed courtyard hidden behind an aged sunflower yellow stucco wall. From the stone pathway you can only catch short glimpses of the setting through grilled windows as you approach the heavy, weathered wooden door way. The door is adorned with cast iron florets and above is a slope of clay roofing tiles. Lying seductively behind is the romance of your own finished home.

Hisham Ben Arbi, owner of http://www.casbahdecor.com

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Tips To Beautify Your Garden!

Any garden can be made beautiful with decorative accessories and furnitures. You can create a lounge like atmosphere in your lawn. Isn’t it amazing to sip hot coffee in the midst of greenery. It creates a chilled atmosphere despite the hot weather. Make use of the right accessories and you can see the difference.

Careful selection of your items is vital to beautify your lawn. A huge number of lawn accessories comprise of planters, trays troughs, hammock, lighting, lanterns, stepping stones in varied colours and shape, ornamental fountains, statues, feeders, fencing, gates etc. Bamboo fountain, musical fountain and sculpture is another good tip for garden accessory. Brass pots, earthen pots and decorative flower pots can adorn your yards. outdoor lighting and lanterns make it perfect for a dinner in your lawn. Make use of the bark and create swings out of the branches available. This gives you a very homely atmosphere and helps you create fairy swings and furnitures with no investment at all.

You can add your own personal style to your garden by selecting tools and accessories reflecting your own personality and style.  It creates a conducive environment and offers soothing retreat for everyone who wants to experience nature and its benefits. Pick up an  accessory which is both decorative and practical. Apart from the accessories, potting mix , fertilizer, plant care products, lawn seed, mulch etc are required to make your lawn beautiful. In order to adorn your lawn make use of items like wooden mushroom seats, cast iron white rabbit, coloured mallard duck, hand carved fish on a rope, carved tiles, iron door stop and hammocks create a pleasing look. You can choose from a variety of hammocks such as family ones, kids hammock which may or may not be weather proof etc.

If you don’t like hammocks, you can choose hanging chair which is quite different from the usual hammock. You can use your imagination to come up with a variety of combination of trimmings and items such as alfresco dining, canopies, outside furniture and many other decorative items and furniture.

More and more people are showing a lot of interest towards garden designing or landscape architecture. They are getting into such courses due to the popularity of lawn landscaping. Some of them get a barbecue, lawns and outdoor kitchens and patios included. You can make your house look beautiful with extended lawns. Choose your accessories with utmost care and enhance the way your house looks.

designed by arik levy, this doorstop shows complete carelessness with money. show them you are just above it all. leave what’s left to your dog. aluminum/cast iron base. 6.1″ x 2.5″ x 1.6″h note: this is not made of real gold China supplier: Email : fangzhengcn@hotmail.com Skype ID : chanceller819 chinagift.en.ecplaza.net

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Garden With an Aesthetic Appeal Right Accessories

Get rightly guided to add a pleasing look to your garden. Find a huge source of information and products in online directory and get the right tips to enhance the way your garden looks. There are eco-friendly Furniture, Accessories And Home Furnishings to help you. Make use of lanterns such as a stone lantern, Granite lanterns, rain chains, iron lanterns and other such items. Musical fountains, bamboo fountains and sculpture is another good tip for garden accessory. You have an endless collection of antique outdoor accessories such as Table top urns, sun catchers, antique compotes, garden thermometers, French wire decor, sun catchers, indoor plant holders, decorative weathervanes, unusual pottery, ethnic objects. Just be more creative on what you place and how you place your outdoor accessories. Wind chimes and stepping stones offer a warm welcome to your guests. Do away with your old welcome mats and the common clichéd items.

Landscaping adds levels to a garden making it more interesting. Depending on the available space, choosing and planting certain plants is important so that the garden always has some blooms. Have a variety of flower saplings planted and ensure that you have flowers of all seasons. So that, your garden has flowers bloomed all year long. People don’t use concrete accessories any more; instead they make use of vibrant colors and designs now to suit your taste. Another nice touch you can consider is to put decorative garden stakes and small planters along the side of your pathway. These small additions can make quite an impression to your visitors.

You can also consider Garden art and sculpture to adorn your garden such as cast iron white rabbit, wooden mushroom seats, hand carved fish on a rope, coloured mallard duck, zinc cast iron door stop and beautiful carved tiles can add a pleasing look to your garden. Some do prefer hammocks, be it kids hammock, or family size hammock. You also get weather proof hammocks and cotton ones. Other popular garden collectibles are garden tools, birdhouses, folk art, furniture, watering cans, garden signs, planters, ornaments etc. Many of these items can easily be found at tag sales, flea markets and second hand shops.

Just these beautiful accessories are not sufficient to make your garden look beautiful. Take enough care and maintain your gardens well. Large gardens need more physical labor in the form of soil additives for maintenance, lawn mowing, pruning of plants, spraying of pesticides. Available online, is professional help desk which assures you of a neat and beautiful garden throughout the year.

Hubley Cast Iron Door Stop
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Fireplace Glass Doors Function And Benefits

Fireplace glass doors make a beautiful and economic addition to your fireplace.  There is a large selection of fireplace glass doors so you can find the one that is right for your fireplace and you.  All your fireplace requires is that it fits.  You on the other hand, should be concerned about quality, style, and function.

As with anything, you should buy the best quality fireplace glass doors that you can.  When quality improves so does style and function.  Important functions to consider are:

Do the fireplace glass doors open fully?  Check to be sure that the doors open fully.  Cabinet style doors should open all the way 180 degrees to meet the back wall.  Bi-fold doors should also open 180 degrees and fold back on itself.  Doors that open fully are a lot less likely to get broken put logs in the fire.  Fully opened doors are also out of the way when you are cleaning out the firebox.

Are the fireplace glass doors removable?  Removable doors make the installation process much easier.  This reduces the risk of damage to the doors and also makes the unit lighter while installing the frame to the firebox walls.  

Removable doors are also great for cleaning.  You can easily remove the fireplace glass doors and take them outside for a thorough washing.  Ammonia is also great for cleaning the glass which is best done outside.  Just a reminder, never mix ammonia with any other chemicals because of the poisonous fumes.

The economic benefits of fireplace glass doors are great.  The closed doors offer another barrier for the heat from your house to escape.  When the fireplace is not in use, the only thing you rely on to keep heat from rushing up the chimney or cold air coming down the chimney is the damper.  

Dampers are not known for their insulating qualities.  The cast iron damper gets cold and this will radiate cold air into your home.  Fireplace glass doors will stop this cold air from getting in you house.

When the fireplace is in use, the draw from the heat and smoke going up the chimney pulls the warm air from the room with it.  Fireplace glass doors eliminate this.  The frame has a damper on it because all fires need air.  However, the air drawn from the damper is a lot less than the heat that is radiated from the glass.

If you want the most efficiency from your fireplace, consider fireplace glass doors.  There is no better way to put the heat into your home and not up the chimney.

AM Greenblatt Flower Basket Cast Iron Doorstop 1927 #139 Boston MA Hubley Cosmos Cast Iron Flower Doorstop #455 Hubley Hyacinth with Mixed Flowers #259 (Very Rare) Get antique collecting tips at my blog: AntiquesAtLongLast.com Follow Me On Twitter twitter.com Please comment, rate, and subscribe to my channel.
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